CHAPTER XIV
The Expedition of Lieutenant Pike -1806

Very shortly after the acquisition of the vast territory then embraced under the name of Louisiana from the French by the United States, the government of the latter undertook the exploration of such portions of this immense domain as were then unknown, save to the aborigines. Captains Meriwether Lewis and William Clark were selected by the president to explore the then unvisited sources of the Missouri, and Lieutenant Zebulon Montgomery Pike, of the sixth infantry, to follow the Mississippi to its source; both expeditions having to traverse unbroken wildernesses and encounter untold hardships and privations. The expedition of Lieutenant Pike occupied nearly nine months, extending from August 9, 1805, when he sailed from St. Louis, to the last day of April, 1806, when he returned.

Soon after his arrival he was requested by General Wilkinson to take command of another expedition then being fitted out at St. Louis, the primary object of which was to conduct a number of Osage Indian captives, and also a deputation of that tribe recently returned from Washington, up the Missouri and Osage Rivers to the Indian town of Grand Osage. The instructions then provided that Lieutenant Pike should endeavor to bring about a permanent peace between the Kansas and Osage nations; and afterwards to "establish a good understanding with the Yanctons, Tetaus, or Camanches," and finally "to ascertain the direction, extent, and navigation of the Arkansaw and Red Rivers." As to the possibility of meeting inhabitants of New Mexico, the instructions of the general were as follows:
"As your interview with the Camanches will probably lead you to the head branches of the Arkansaw and Red Rivers, you

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may find yourself approximated to the settlements of New Mexico, and there it will be necessary you should move with great circumspection to keep clear of any hunting or reconnoitering parties from that province and to prevent alarm or offense; because the affairs of Spain and the United States appear to be on the point of amicable adjustment, and moreover it is the desire of the President to cultivate the friendship and harmonious intercourse of all the nations of the earth, and particularly our near neighbors, the Spaniards."

This expedition started from the landing at Belle Fontaine on July 15, 1806 - the party consisting of two lieutenants, one surgeon, one sergeant, two corporals, sixteen privates, and one interpreter. The surgeon was Dr. Robinson, who was a volunteer, giving his services as compensation for transportation and accommodation. Without dwelling on this expedition until it neared the Spanish boundary, it may be said that from August 20th to September 1st, Lieutenant Pike remained at Grand Osage, holding councils with the chiefs of the Osage nation, and that on September 29th he held a grand council with the Pawnees at their principal village, not less than 400 warriors being present.

At this point he saw the first evidences of the Spanish expedition which had recently visited there from New Mexico. This expedition, which was the most important that ever penetrated to the eastward into the Indian country, at least in modern times, consisted of 100 dragoons of the regular army drawn from Chihuahua, and 500 mounted militia of New Mexico, all equipped with ammunition for six months, and each man leading two horses and a mule, making the whole number of animals 2,075. The whole force was under the command of Don Facundo Melgares, a lieutenant in the Spanish army, a man of large wealth and liberal education, who had gained much distinction in previous expeditions against the Apaches and other hostile Indians. They descended the Red River 233 leagues, held councils there with the chief of the Tetaus, and afterwards struck off northeast to the Arkansaw River, and thence to the Pawnee nation, where they held a grand council, presented Spanish flags and medals, and also a commission to Characterish, the head chief, from the

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governor of New Mexico (dated Santa Fe, June 15, 1806), and finally returned to Santa Fe in October. When the distance traveled and the country and tribes passed through are considered, this expedition rivals those of Lewis and Clark, and Pike, for its extent, difficulty, and importance.

After leaving the Pawnee capital, Lieutenant Pike proceeded westerly between the Arkansaw and the Kansas Rivers (always called in his narrative "Arkansaw" and "Kans"), seeing many prairie-dogs, which he calls Wishtonwishcs from the sound of their cry, and of which he tells us almost the exact story afterwards repeated by Horace Greeley of their living in the same hole with a rattlesnake, a horned frog, and a land tortoise. On the 28th of October, in accordance with instructions, he detached Lieutenant Wilkinson with five soldiers to make the trip down the Arkansaw River in canoes, for the purpose of exploring its whole course to the Mississippi. On the 15th of November he came in sight of the Rocky Mountains, and soon after encountered almost constant snows, suffering great hardships - as the company had only summer cotton clothes - and on the 3d of December reached and calculated the altitude of the great mountain which bears his name - "Pike's Peak."He mentions it as known to all the savage nations for hundreds of miles around, and spoken of with admiration by the Spaniards, being the limit of their travels to the northward. Pike's measurement made it 10,581 feet above the level of the prairie, which he estimated at 8,000 feet, thus making the total elevation 18,581, whereas the latest estimates make it only 14,147; and he says that in all the wanderings of the party for over two months, from November 14th to January 27th, it was never out of their sight.

The hardships endured during this period are almost beyond description: the feet of the men became frosted so that they could only proceed with the utmost pain, and finally several had to be left in sheltered localities, and supplied with food from time to time by the remainder. The party subsisted entirely on the product of the chase, and sometimes for as long as three full days were without a mouthful to eat. In December the expedition

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determined to leave the valley of the Arkansaw and proceed southerly, to strike the headwaters of the Red River, which they expected to find at that point. Soon after they met a stream which they followed eastward slowly, on account of their wretched physical condition, and the necessity of stopping daily to hunt; but imagine their feelings, almost of despair, when on January 5th they found that they had thus been led back to the Arkansaw, and were at the camp which they had occupied nearly a month before! Again they started southerly, in search of the Red River, determining to cross the mountains before them on foot; each of the party, including the commander himself and Dr. Robinson, carrying forty-five pounds of baggage, besides provisions and arms, making an aggregate of seventy pounds burden. At length, on the 30th of January, they arrived in the evening on the banks of a stream of some magnitude, which they believed to be the long-looked-for Red River. Here they concluded to build a kind of stockade, where four or five might defend themselves while the others went back to carry assistance to the poor fellows who had necessarily been left at various points, on account of inability to travel; the intention being, when all should be assembled, to proceed in canoes or on rafts down the Red River to Natchitoches, then the most westerly United States post in southern Louisiana. At this point Dr. Robinson, who had business in New Mexico, left the party in order to proceed to Santa Fe, which they calculated was then nearer than it would be from any other point.

While most of the men were absent, in search of those left behind, and the remainder were at work building the fort, Pike himself usually employed himself in hunting; and on February 15th, while thus occupied with a single soldier, he discovered two horsemen near the summit of a hill, but half a mile distant. After much parleying they were induced to come to the camp, and proved to be a Spanish dragoon and a civilized Indian, both well armed. They reported that Robinson had arrived in Santa Fe, and been received with great kindness by the governor. They seemed surprised at the appearance of the fort, but Pike informed

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them of his intention of going down the river to Natchitoches as soon as his party was prepared; and at the same time said that if the governor of New Mexico would send an officer with an interpreter, it would be a pleasure to satisfy any doubts he might have as to the intentions of this American party in being so near his borders. The two visitors stated that they could reach Santa Fe in two days (which was not true), but never intimated that Pike was wrong in supposing himself on the banks of the Red River. The building of the fort continued, and gradually the frozen men who had been left behind were brought in - with the exception of two still unable to walk. Of them Pike says, "they sent me some of the bones taken out of their feet, and conjured me by all that was sacred not to leave them to perish far from the civilized world."

On the 26th of February the report of the guard's gun announced the appearance of strangers, and soon after two Frenchmen arrived. These informed Pike that Governor Alencaster, of New Mexico, had heard that the Ute Indians were about to attack the little expedition, and therefore had sent an officer with fifty dragoons to protect them. Scarcely had this notification been received, when the Spanish party came in sight, consisting not only of the fifty dragoons but also fifty mounted militia of the province. Pike sent the Frenchmen to arrange a meeting between himself and the commander of the troops, and then sallied forth to hold the interview on the prairie near the fort. The officers in command of the Spanish expedition were Ygnacio Saltelo and Bartolome Fernandez, both lieutenants. After some conversation, Pike invited them to enter his fortification and they breakfasted together, after which the Spanish officers said that the governor, having learned that Pike's party had lost its route, had sent them to offer all necessary assistance to reach the Red River, the nearest navigable point of which was eight days' journey from Santa Fe. "What," said Pike, interrupting him, "is not this the Red River ?" Imagine his amazement at the answer "No, sir! it is the Rio del Norte." These words showed that he had unwittingly passed the frontiers of the United States, and

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actually erected a fort on Spanish soil, within the borders of New Mexico. His first act, on receiving this astonishing information, was to order his men to take down the American flag, which had been hoisted over the works. The Spanish commander then said that the governor was anxious to see them at Santa Fe as soon as possible, and had provided 100 horses and mules to take the party and their baggage to the capital. Pike at first refused to go until the detachment which he had sent under a sergeant to bring in the two men still absent had returned; but it was finally arranged that he should proceed with one of the lieutenants and half the Spanish force, leaving two men to meet the sergeant's party on their return, to inform them of the changed aspect of affairs. Pike in telling of this event expresses the reluctance with which he abandoned the fort built with so much labor, and which was admirably situated for defense; but finding that he had really, though unintentionally, trespassed on Spanish territory, and being confident that the officers sent had orders to bring him and his men to Santa Fe by force, if necessary, he thought it best to show an entire willingness to make an explanation to the governor, rather than appear to go under restraint.

Much discussion has taken place as to the exact locality of Pike's Fort; but by a careful reading of his narrative it can be determined almost to a certainty. He first saw the Rio Grande from the top of a high hill, two days after his party struck a small river running west, which they hailed as a tributary to the Red River, and followed through what would now be called a canon, along the foot of the White Mountains (Sierra Blanca). A glance at a modern map will show that the small river was the Sangre de Cristo; and the point from which the Rio Grande was first seen, near the site of Fort Garland. After reaching the Rio Grande they descended eighteen miles, where they found a large western branch emptying into the main stream. This must have been the present Conejos River. Five miles up this river, on the north bank, and with the water itself forming the defense on one side, was where he built his fort; which was so

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ingeniously constructed that it could only be entered by creeping through a hole, after passing a drawbridge over the ditch.
The description of the journey to Santa Fe shows the above to be the correct location of the fort. The first town of importance which they saw was after a march of a little more than 100 miles, being the village of Warm Spring, or "L'Eau Chaud," as Pike calls it, or, as now known, Ojo Caliente. Here he found the first real Mexican houses which he had seen, and describes at some length the flat roofs, water-spouts, narrow doors, and small windows - some with mica lights. The springs he describes as two in number, about ten yards apart, each affording water enough for a mill, and the temperature of the water as more than thirty-three degrees above blood-heat. The next day they marched down Ojo Caliente River to its junction with the Chama (which he calls Conejos), observing on the way the ruins of ancient Pueblo towns, as well as several little inhabited villages, all of which had round towers to defend the inhabitants from Indian incursions. Here they first experienced the characteristic hospitality of the Mexican people; who invited them into their houses, dressed the feet of the young men who had been frozen - and in short, to use the language of Pike, "brought to my recollection the hospitality of the ancient patriarchs, and caused me to sigh with regret at the corruption of that noble principle by the polish of modern ages."
The same day they continued down the Chama to the Rio Grande and across to "the village of St. John's" (pueblo of San Juan), which he says was the residence of the president priest of the province, who had resided in it forty years. The house-tops were crowded when the party entered, just as they would be on a similar occasion today; and all the officers and men were hospitably treated. The next morning they marched after breakfast, and in about six miles came to a village of 2,000 souls, and in seven miles further to a small town of 500 inhabitants. These places are not named by the narrator, but must be Santa Cruz and San Ildefonso. Seventeen miles further on they came to a Pueblo town (the Pueblos are always distinguished by Pike as

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"civilized Indians") containing 400 people. While the estimate of population is a good deal exaggerated, this is evidently Tesuque. Here they changed horses and prepared for their entry into the capital and appearance before the governor. The condition of Pike's party as to clothing was so lamentable as to be almost ludicrous. When they left their horses on the Arkansaw, and commenced carrying everything on their backs, all articles were abandoned that were not essential to safety. Ammunition, tools,, leather, etc., claimed the first places; the ornamental was a minor consideration. So on arriving at Santa Fe the commander was dressed in blue trousers, moccasins (mockinsons), blanket, coat, and a cap made of scarlet cloth lined with fur skin; and the men, in leggings, breech-cloths, and leather coats - and not a hat in the whole company. In such garb they did not make a very imposing appearance.

They had left the fort on the Conejos February 26th, and arrived at Santa Fe on the evening of Tuesday, March 3d. Pike describes the length of the city on the creek as about a mile, and that it was about three streets in width :

"Its appearance from a distance struck my mind with the same effect as a fleet of the flat-boats which are seen in the spring and fall seasons descending the Ohio. On the north side of the town is the square of soldiers' houses. The public square is in the center of the town, on the north side of which is situated the palace or government house, with the quarters for the guards, etc. The other side of the square is occupied by the clergy and public offices. In general the houses have a shed before the front, some of which have a flooring of brick; the consequence is that the streets are very narrow, say in general 25 feet. The supposed population is 4,500.''

In another description of Santa Fe, which Captain Pike included in the appendix to his report, he gives a fuller description of the place and its surroundings, as follows:

"In the center of the public square, one side of which forms the flank of the soldiers' square, which is closed and in some degree defended by round towers in the angles which flank the four curtains; another side of the square is formed by the palace of the

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governor, his guard-houses, etc. The third side is occupied by the priests and their suite, and the fourth by the chapetones who reside in the city."
On entering the city, Lieutenant Pike was conducted to the palace, where he says:

"We were ushered in through various rooms, the floors of which were covered with skins of buffalo, bear, or some other animal. We waited in a chamber for some time until his excellency appeared, when we arose, and the following conversation took place in French:
" Gov. Do you speak French?
"Pike. Yes, sir.
"Gov. You come to reconnoitre our country,,do you?
"Pike. I marched to reconnoitre our own.
" Gov. In what character are you?
"Pike. In my proper character, an officer of the United States Army.
" Gov. How many men have you?
"Pike. Fifteen.
" Gov. When did you leave St. Louis!
"Pike. 15th of July.
"Gov. I think you marched in June.
"Pike. No, sir.
"Gov. Well, return with Mr. Bartholomew to his house, and come here again at seven o 'clock, and bring your papers.

"At the hour appointed we returned, when the governor demanded my papers. I told him I under-stood my trunk was taken possession of by his guard. He expressed his surprise, and immediately ordered it in; and also sent for one Solomon Colly, formerly a sergeant in our army, and one of the unfortunate company of Nolan. We were seated, when he ordered Colly to demand my name, to which I replied; he then demanded in what province I was born. I answered in English, and then addressed his excellency in French, and told him that I did not think it necessary to enter into such a catechising; that if he would be at the pains of reading my commission from the United States, and my orders from my general, it would be all that. I presumed would be necessary to convince his excellency that I came with no hostile intentions toward the Spanish government; on the contrary, that I had express instructions to guard against giving them offense or alarm, and that his excellency would be convinced that myself and party were rather to be considered objects on which the so

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much celebrated generosity of the Spanish nation might be exercised, than proper subjects to occasion the opposite sentiments.

He then requested to see my commission and orders, which 1 read to him in French; on which he got up and gave me his hand for the first time, and said he was happy to be acquainted with me as a man of honor and a gentleman, that I could retire this evening and take my trunk with me; that on the morrow he would make further arrangements.

The next day, after examining the contents of Pike's trunk, the governor informed him that he must go with his men to Chihuahua, in the then province of Biscay, to appear before the commandant-general. The following conversation then ensued, which Pike has preserved in full in his journal:

"Pike. If we go to Chihuahua, we must be considered as prisoners of war.
"Gov. By no means.
"Pike. You have already disarmed my men without my knowledge; are their arms to be returned, or not?
" Gov. They can receive them at any moment.
"Pike. But, sir, I cannot consent to be led 300 or 400 leagues out of my route without its being by force of arms.
"Gov. I know you do not go voluntarily, but I will give you a certificate from under my hand of my having obliged you to march.
"Pike. 1 will address you a letter on the subject.
"Gov. You will dine with me today, and march afterwards to a village about six miles distant, escorted by Captain Antony D'Almansa, with a detachment of dragoons, who will accompany you to where the remainder of your escort is now waiting for you, under the command of the officer who commanded the expedition to the Pawnees."
After the dinner - which Captain Pike characterizes as "rather splendid," having a variety of dishes, and wines of the southern provinces - the governor drove Pike, D'Almansa, and a Mr. Bartholomew, who had proved a special friend to the Americans, three miles on the road to the south, the coach being attended by a guard of cavalry; and on parting said to his prisoner-guest: "Remember Alencaster in peace or war."
Accompanied by his friend Bartholomew and the guard, Pike

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continued on through a blinding sand, and passed the night at the priest's house, at what apparently was the present village of La Bajada; as he says that they came to a precipice which he descended, meeting with great difficulty from the obscurity of the night. Shortly after noon of the next day they arrived at the pueblo of Santo Domingo, which they describe as "a large village - the population being about 1,000 natives, governed by its own chief." The insignia of the governor appears to have been nearly the same then as at present, as it is stated that he was distinguished by "a cane with a silver head and black tassel."Pike visited the old church, and speaks enthusiastically of its rich paintings and the image of the saint, "as large as life - elegantly ornamented with gold and silver."

On Friday, March 6th, they arrived at San Felipe, where they crossed the Rio Grande on a bridge of eight arches, which seems to have attracted Pike's attention especially, as he gives a full description of its construction. Here they stopped at the house of the padre, Father Rubi, whose hospitality and extended information made the stay a pleasant one. At Albuquerque they were similarly entertained by Father Ainbrosio Guerra, and Pike seems to have been particularly impressed with the beauty of some of the orphan girls, whom the good padre had adopted, and was bringing up in his household; and enthusiastically writes, after describing the dinner, "and to crown all, we were waited on by half a dozen of those beautiful girls, who, like Hebe at the feast of the gods, converted our wine to nectar, and with their ambrosial breath shed incense on our cups."

A short distance further south Pike was rejoiced to meet Dr. Robinson, who had left the party, it will be recollected, while they still believed they were on the Red River, to find his way to Santa Fe. He had received much the same treatment as Lieutenant Pike's command, and was being conveyed to Chihuahua by Don Facundo Melgares, who was now also to assume command of the guard that was conducting Pike. This Melgares was the same who had commanded the Spanish Pawnee expedition, and was described by Robinson to Pike in the highest terms as a gentleman

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and soldier of gallantry and honor, praise in which Pike himself heartily joined after a brief acquaintance.

After passing towns which the lieutenant calls Tousac, St. Fernandez, Sabinez, and Xaxales, the expedition reached Sevil-leta, spelled by Pike "Sibilleta," which he calls the neatest and most symmetrical village he had seen, being built in a regular square, with an unbroken wall on the outside, all the doors and windows facing the square. At this point, at that time, the semiannual caravan for the south was formed, leaving in the month of February for El Paso, and returning in March; and making a similar expedition in the fall. The spring caravan which Pike saw consisted of about 300 men, escorted by an officer and thirty-five or forty troops, and was conducting 15,000 sheep, which had been collected from various parts of New Mexico, and were to be sold or exchanged for merchandise.

On the 21st of March the whole party arrived at El Paso, and Pike, with the officers, stayed at the house of Don Francisco Garcia, a wealthy merchant and planter, possessing 20,000 sheep and 1,000 cows.

On April 2d they reached Chihuahua, and Pike immediately had an audience with the general commanding, Don Nemecio Salcedo, who took his papers for examination, and also requested him to write a brief sketch of his travels and adventures on this expedition, which he shortly after did.

After being detained for some time, which however was spent quite pleasantly, owing to the hospitality of many of the leading citizens, Pike and Robinson were sent by a route nearly directly eastward, toward Natchitoches, which was the nearest United States post. On June 7th they arrived at San Antonio, where they were very hospitably treated by Governor Cordero, of Coahuila and Texas, and Governor Herrera, of the kingdom of New Leon, who treated them, in the language of Pike, "like their children."

At length, on the 1st of July, 1807 - but three weeks short of a year from the time of his departure from St. Louis - after crossing the whole of what is now the state of Texas, late in the after-

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noon, but so eager to arrive that they left their jaded horses and pressed forward on foot, Pike entered the town of Natehitoches with Dr. Robinson. "Language,"says he, "cannot express the gaiety of my heart when I once more beheld the standard of my country waved aloft. All hail cried I, 'the ever sacred name of country, in which is embraced that of kindred, friends, and every other tie which is dear to the soul of man!

It will be interesting to make a few extracts from the description which Captain Pike gave of New Mexico in the Observations which form part of the appendix to the history of his expedition; as showing the condition of the country at that period, in several respects in which time has wrought changes, and in other instances illustrating the characteristics which are still distinguishing marks of the territory and its people:

MINES, ETC. - There are no mines known in the province, except one of copper, situated in a mountain on the west side of Rio del Norte, in latitude 34° north. It is worked, and produces twenty thousand mule loads of copper annually. It also furnishes that article for the manufactories of nearly all the internal provinces. It contains gold, but not quite sufficient to pay for its extraction; consequently it has not been pursued.

It is not easy to fix the identity of the copper mine referred to, as latitude 34° is just below Socorro, but it is probable that the latitude given is incorrect, and that the mine was the "Santa Rita" then being actively worked, having been discovered in 1800. This extract may be read in connection with one soon to be given on trade and commerce, in which "wrought copper vessels" appear among the exports.

MINERALS. -"There is, near Santa Fe, in some of the mountains, a stratum of talc, which is so large and flexible as to render it capable of being subdivided into thin flakes, of which the greater proportion of the houses in Santa Fe, and in all the villages to the north, have their window-lights made."

These mica mines, especially at Petaca, Nambe, and in the vicinity of Mora (where one of the villages is called Talco), are well known at present. As late as the time of the American occu-

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pation, in 1846, we are told that no house in Santa Fe, except the palace, had windows of glass.

TRADE AND COMMERCE. -New Mexico carries on a trade direct with Mexico through Biscay (Chihuahua), also with Sonora and Sinaloa; it sends out about 30,000 sheep annually, tobacco, dressed deer and cabrie skins, some fur, buffalo-robes, salt, and wrought copper vessels of a superior quality. It receives in return from Biscay and Mexico, dry-goods, confectionery, arms, iron, steel, ammunition, and some choice European wines and liquors; and from Sonora and Sinaloa gold, silver, and cheese. The following articles sell as stated (in this province), which will show the cheapness of provisions and the- extreme dearness of imported goods:
Flour sells per hundred at $ 2.00
Salt per mule-load 5.00
Sheep each 1.00
Beeves each 5.00
Wine del Passo per barrel 15.00
Horses each 11.00
Mules each 30.00
Superfine cloths per yard 25.00
Fine cloths per yard 20.00
Linen per yard 4.00
and all other dry-goods in proportion.

The journey from Santa Fe to Mexico and returning to Santa Fe takes five months. They manufacture rough leather, segars, a vast variety and quantity of potters' ware, cotton, some coarse woolen cloths, and blankets of a superior quality. All these manufactures are carried on by the civilized Indians, as the Spaniards think it more honorable to be agriculturists than mechanics. The Indians likewise far exceed their conquerors in their genius for, and execution of, all mechanical operations. New Mexico has the exclusive right of cultivating tobacco.''

From this it will be seen that the manufacture of pottery, the evidences of which are found in great quantities in the ruins of the oldest pueblos, and which is still carried on to such an extent by the Pueblo Indians, was never intermitted by that industrious people. The blankets were probably the forerunners of the present celebrated productions of the Navajos, which tribe is mentioned by Pike under the name of "Nanahaws." Then, as

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now, the Apaches were the most troublesome of the natives, as the Observations say, The Apaches are a nation of Indians who extend from the Black Mountains in New Mexico to the frontiers of Cogquilla [Coahuila], keeping the frontiers of these provinces in a continual state of alarm, and making it necessary to employ nearly 2,000 dragoons to escort the caravans, protect the villages, and revenge the attacks they are continually making.

GOVERNMENT AND LAWS. -The government of New Mexico may be termed military, in the pure sense of the word; for although they have their alcaldes, or inferior officers, their judgments are subject to a reversion by the military commandants of districts. The whole male population are subject to military duty, without pay or emolument, and are obliged to find their own horses, arms, and provisions. The only thing furnished by the government is ammunition, and it is extraordinary with what subordination they act when they are turned out to do military duty; a strong proof of which was exhibited in the expedition of Melgares to the Pawnees. His command consisted of 100 dragoons of the regular service and 500 drafts from the province.

In the following paragraph Captain Pike pays a warm tribute to the bravery of the New Mexicans, and makes a richly merited recognition of that generosity and hospitality for which they are everywhere noted, and which the lapse of a century has not lessened, but which form as notable a characteristic today as when the captain wrote these words in 1807.

MANNERS, ETC. - There is nothing peculiarly characteristic in this province that will not be embraced in my general observations on New Spain, except that being frontier and cut off, as it were, from the more inhabited parts of the kingdom, together with their continual wars with some of the savage nations who surround them, render them the bravest and most hardy subjects in New Spain; being generally armed, they know the use of them. Their want of gold and silver renders them laborious, in order that the productions of their labor may be the means of establishing the equilibrium between them and the other provinces where those metals abound. Their isolated and remote situation also causes them to exhibit in a superior degree the heaven like qualities of hospitality and kindness, in which they

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appear to endeavor to fulfill the injunction of the scripture, which enjoins us to feed the hungry, clothe the naked, and give comfort to the oppressed in spirit; and I shall always take pleasure in expressing my gratitude for their noble reception of my self and the men under my command.

CHAPTER XV
Mexican Government, 1821-46

In 1821 the revolutionary sentiment against Spanish authority, in Mexico, which had never been quenched from the time of the first efforts for freedom under Hidalgo in 1810, assumed practical form by the Plan of Iguala, which may be called the Mexican Declaration of Independence, promulgated on February 24th.
The revolutionists became so powerful that on August 24th a treaty was signed at Cordoba by the viceroy, Don Juan O'Donoju, recognizing the independence of Mexico. As the Spanish commander of the city of Mexico refused to deliver up that city, it was captured by General Iturbide on September 27th, and Spanish authority was at an end in all of New Spain.

The government of Spain repudiated the action of O'Donoju, but this had no practical effect as the new government held undisputed sway. A congress convened to formulate a constitution, and finally, on March 19, 1822, to the great disgust of its republican members, adopted an imperial form of government with General Iturbide as its first emperor under the name of Augustin I.

The reign of the new emperor was short. The republican leaders headed a counter-revolution, which resulted on April 7, 1823, in a decree of the congress declaring the coronation of Iturbide illegal and void and banishing him from the soil of Mexico.

These changes in the government of New Spain necessarily affected New Mexico, but there were. no conflicts nor bloodshed there, the distant and almost isolated territory simply accepting the new conditions as they were imposed.

There was a burst of enthusiasm in Santa Fe over the achievement of Mexican independence. When the news arrived on the

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day after Christmas, 1821, that Iturbide had captured the city of Mexico there was great excitement, and Governor Melgares made an inspiring address to a great meeting in the plaza. It was determined to have a grand demonstration in honor of Mexican independence on January 6th, Dia de los Reyes (Epiphany), and the celebration lasted from the dawn of that day, ushered in by salutes of artillery, till the dawn of the next when the ball at the palace ended. All the noted characters of the day took part in the ceremonies. Juan Bautista Vigil, destined twenty-four years later to receive General Kearny and officially end the Mexican authority, was postmaster, and his building on the west side of the plaza was gorgeously decorated. The alcalde, Pedro Armendaris, led a grand march. A patriotic drama was presented, in which Santiago Abreu represented Independence; Vicar Juan Tomas Terrasas personated Religion; and Chaplain Francisco Osio, the Union.
Altogether, the new independence, though coupled with an emperor, was received with loud acclaim.

RULERS
ANTONIO VISCARRA was the first regular executive under Mexican authority. The title was now changed from governor to Political Chief. Governor Viscarra succeeded Melgares on July 5, 1822, and was also acting-governor in 1828.

He was succeeded in June, 1823, by Francisco Xavier Chaves, a prominent native New Mexican, who acted for a few weeks until the regular appointment of -
BARTOLOME BACA, who was in authority during half of 1823, and until September 13, 1825, when he was succeeded by -

ANTONIO NARBONA, who held the office until May 20, 1827. He was a Canadian.

MANUEL ARMIJO then obtained the position, holding it at this time but about a year, when -

JOSE ANTONIO CHAVEZ succeeded, and held the office for three years, a long period in those days of rapid changes and short administrations.

SANTIAGO ABREU became political chief in 1831, and continued

MEXICAN GOVERNMENT, 1821-46

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until some time in 1832. He and his two brothers, Ramon and Marcelino, all came from Mexico some time before, and all were killed in the revolution of 1837. Governor Abreu was chief justice down to the time of that revolution.

FRANCISCO SARRACINO. - Political chief, 1833 to May 14, 1835, except in October, 1834, when Juan Rafael Ortiz was acting executive.
In May, 1835, Mariano Chavez became acting jefe politico for three, months, until the arrival from Mexico, in July, 1835, of -

ALBINO PEREZ, who served as political chief until the new Mexican constitution went into effect and New Mexico was changed from a territory into a department, and its executive from a political chief to a governor. The new arrangement went into operation in May, 1837, Perez being appointed the first governor, and holding the position until he was cruelly murdered in the revolution of that year. During the insurrection, and while Jose Gonzales was claiming to be governor, the legitimate authority was held by -

PEDRO MUNOZ, a colonel in the army, as acting-governor, until the executive power was assumed by -

MANUEL ARMIJO, first as commanding general, and after the execution of Gonzales in January, 1838, as governor. He was soon after regularly appointed to the latter office, and held it until suspended by the inspector-general. For a brief time in 1841

ANTONIO SANDOVAL appears as acting governor; and during the suspension of Armijo -

MARIANO MARTINEZ DE LEJANZA was governor from some time in 1844 to September 18, 1845, and -

JOSE CHAVEZ from the latter date to December, when Armijo was returned to the executive office, and again assumed its duties.

MANUEL ARMIJO was the last Mexican governor, holding the position until the American occupation.

JUAN BAUTISTA VIGIL Y ALARID became acting-governor for a short time after Armijo's retreat, and as such delivered the capital to General Kearny, August 18, 1846.

All through this period, down to the final overthrow of the

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Navajos long after the American occupation, there existed an almost constant condition of warfare with that powerful tribe. They made frequent incursions into the settlements - much as the Comanches did in the preceding century; and in turn armed expeditions were made into their country, with a view to their punishment and the destruction of their villages and property. The military reputation of Melgares was won in such expeditions, before he was sent to negotiate with the Pawnees in the east. They served as a school of military experience. Governor Vigil, then a militia officer, took part in no less than four of these campaigns, in 1823, 1833, 1836, and 1838. Manuel Chaves, Jose Maria Chavez, and Roman A. Baca made great reputations as leaders in the almost constant Indian wars.

About the year 1830 the Navajos were kept in very good order for a time by the energy of Colonel Vizcarra, but after his departure no one arose capable of inspiring them with fear. The ordinary custom was for peace to be made in the spring, which permitted the sowing of grain to be done without danger; but the fall was very likely to see a renewal of hostilities. An expedition organized in 1835, in which most of the leading men of the territory enlisted as volunteers, was surprised by an ambush in a narrow defile, and forced to retreat with some loss. The Apaches also made periodical raids into certain parts of the territory, and by attacks on frontier settlements prevented to a great extent the spread of population.

In 1824, Durango, Chihuahua, and New Mexico were united in constituting a state of the Mexican Union; but this arrangement did not last for any great length of time.

In 1828 the Mexican Congress passed a law expelling all native-born Spaniards (called Cachupines) from the republic. This of course affected a number in New Mexico, including several Franciscan friars, who were all forced to leave, with the exception of two, named Albino and Castro, who were permitted to remain on account of their advanced age - and the payment of $500 each! It was not believed that any large portion of this sum reached the official treasury.

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In 1833, Bishop Zubiria, of Durahgo, made a visitation throughout New Mexico, and was received with great enthusiasm. Special preparations were made at all points for his reception; the roads and bridges on the route were repaired and decorated, and the houses decked with flags, colored cloths, and flowers, in profusion. He made quite a protracted stay in Santa Fe, and visited a number of towns in the territory. A year before, Padre Ortiz (Juan Felipe) had been appointed as vicar-general of New Mexico. Bishop Zubiria made another visitation to New Mexico in 1845, and again in 1850.

In 1835 the first newspaper enterprise was attempted - Padre Martinez, of Taos, issuing a paper, of the size of foolscap, entitled El Crepusculo (meaning The Dawn), weekly for about a month, when its particular mission being accomplished, and the number of its subscribers (about fifty) not justifying a continuance, it was abandoned.

In 1837 occurred the change in the general system of government throughout the republic, which metamorphosed New Mexico from a territory into a department, and by its augmented taxation and other unpopular features led to an insurrection of large importance, and at the time, of very doubtful result. This was the first revolution, of any real moment, in a century and a half; for which reason it has appeared best to treat it briefly in a separate chapter. (See Chapter XVI.)
Through many years, since the first passage across the plains in the early part of the century, the traffic with the United States had been steadily increasing, until it had grown to very large proportions, and the goods thus brought to Santa Fe were distributed over a large part of northern Mexico. The importance of this business and the general interest attached to the history of the Santa Fe Trail, has caused that subject also to have a separate chapter devoted to it. (See Chapter XVII.)
PIONEERS
This intercourse between the valleys of the Mississippi and the Rio Grande naturally brought into New Mexico merchants

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and traders from the east, and they, together with trappers and hunters who gradually accumulated a competence and settled down near the scenes of their active life, constituted a population now generally known as the Pioneers, or the Old Timers. Their history should be separately written, and when their adventures and exploits are faithfully recorded, will be as interesting as the most fascinating romance. Many of the first of them to settle on the western border of the plains were of the parentage known as St. Louis French; and hence come the French names which exist throughout the north of the territory, whose existence would otherwise be a mystery.

Among the first thus to establish a business in New Mexico was Antonio Roubidoux, who settled at Taos in 1822. Charles Beaubien came to the same town in 1827, and a year later married the sister of Don Pedro Valdez. He was one of the grantees of the enormous Beaubien and Miranda Grant, to which his son-in-law gave the name of the '' Maxwell Grant.'' His daughters married respectively Lucien B. Maxwell, Jesus G. Abreu, Joseph Clouthier, and Frederick Muller. Colonel Ceran St. Vrain, perhaps the most celebrated of southwestern pioneers, lived for many years at Taos, and subsequently at Mora, where he owned a large mill, and where his grave now is. The Bents built Bent's Fort in 1829, and in 1832 Bent and St. Vrain commenced business at Taos. There Charles Bent married, and lived until his appointment as governor, and violent death in 1847. Kit Carson first came from Missouri to Santa Fe in 1826; afterwards going to Taos, where he studied Spanish with Kinkead, and through all the travels and vicissitudes of his after life, retained that as his home. Maxwell, on his Home Ranch on the Cimarron, lived like a feudal chief, dispensing a lavish hospitality, and literally lord of all he surveyed. He employed 500 men, had 1,000 horses, 10,000 cattle, and 40,000 sheep; and after the hardships of early frontier life, enjoyed leisure and profusion in his later days. The oldest living American in Santa Fe for many years was James Conklin, who came in 1825, and died in June, 1883. Samuel B. Watrous, the father of the town of that name, arrived in 1835, and for a considerable time lived at the Placers.

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James Bonney, whose hospitality both Emory and Abert record, was the original settler at La Junta, in 1842, his house being the first one seen in 1846 for a distance of 775 miles in coming from the east. Peter Joseph, a native of the Azores, came to Taos in 1844, and established himself in business.

It is said that the very first foreigner to settle in New Mexico was a Frenchman, named Jean dAlay, who came to Taos in 1743; and that the well-known Alarid family is descended from him.

Among valuable documents recently acquired by the Historical Society is an official list of the foreigners residing in Taos and Mora just before the American occupation, dated September 20, 1845. It is interesting, not only for the information thus afforded, but on account of the extraordinary spelling of a number of English names. It reads as follows:

TAOS

Luis Lee

Beaubien

Luciano Manuel

Abran Lodis

Alarid Blanco

Manuel Lefebre

Jose Bielin

Antonio Dillette

Antonio Brachel

Carlos Foun

Tomas Ortibi

Antonio Ledoux

Pascual Rivera

Juan Bta. Ortibi

Francisco Lafore

Simon Foler

Yorga Lon

Jose Manuel Grejan

Juan Bautista Laerne

Jorge Bui

MORA

Antonio Ledux
Juan Bautista Brichal
Santiago Bone

Luis Carbono
Juan Bautista Yara

TEXAN SANTA FE EXPEDITION

In the year 1841 great excitement was produced by reports of the coming of an invading army from Texas, for the purpose of

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conquering the territory. George W. Kendall, the editor of the New Orleans Picayune, who accompanied this expedition simply as a traveler, has left a very graphic account of its history in his Santa Fe Expedition, published in 1844.

ccording to his statement, it had no intention of making war; but simply to endeavor to open a mercantile trade. The Mexican authorities, however, naturally regarded it as a direct invasion of their territory; and terrible stories were circulated as to the ferocity of the Texans, who, it was said, would burn, slay, and destroy wherever they went.

The expedition set out from Austin on the 18th of June, 1841, under command of General McLeod; and consisted of 270 mounted volunteers, divided into six companies, of which one was of artillery and provided with a brass six-pounder; and about fifty others, including commissioners, merchants, tourists, and servants. Their march was a very dangerous and arduous one, as it passed through a country entirely un-traveled. When a long distance out on the plains, Lieutenant Hull and four men were killed by the Caygua Indians; and soon, on account of the difficulty in finding water, it was determined to divide the party, Captain Sutton, with eighty-seven soldiers and twelve civilians, being sent in advance on the best horses to find the nearest settlements and send word back to the remainder. They took rations for five days, but owing to their lack of knowledge of the country, it was thirteen before they met any human beings, when they fell in with a party of Mexicans in the vicinity of the present Fort Bascom. From here two of the party, Captain Lewis and Mr. Van Ness, who spoke Spanish, were sent ahead to confer with the authorities, and two merchants with Mr. Kendall accompanied them.

The following morning they proceeded through La Cuesta to San Miguel, and on the way were met by Damacio Salazar, with 100 roughly dressed but well mounted soldiers. Having surrounded the party with his men, Salazar said that he must demand their arms. These were given up, and soon after Salazar said that his instructions were to take all papers and similar articles. They were shocked a little later to see twelve men

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drawn up before them with the evident intent of shooting them then and there; and this would have been accomplished but for the intervention of Don Gregorio Vigil, who stopped the bloody deed. The prisoners - for such they now were - were then marched through La Cuesta and Puertocito to Sail Miguel, where they were confined in a room; the women all along the route showing a kindness and sympathy in marked contrast with the unnecessary cruelty of their captors. The next day on the road to Santa Fe, they met Governor Armijo, who directed them to be retaken to San Miguel. Here, from their little window, they saw two of their late companions shot for having attempted to escape after being taken.

On the 17th of October the whole Texan expedition marched out of San Miguel, on the way to the city of Mexico, under a strong guard commanded by Salazar. The story of their sufferings and privations; of the numberless cruelties and persecutions inflicted by Salazar; of the great contrast in their treatment when they were transferred at El Paso to the care of General J. M. Elias Gonzales, who put Salazar under arrest; of the kindness and hospitality of this General "Elias" and Padre Ortiz, and of their long imprisonment in Mexico - is graphically told by Mr. Kendall, but cannot have further space here.

In 1844 Governor Martinez issued a proclamation which is interesting as containing the last arrangement of civil divisions under the Mexican rule, and also as giving the estimated populations. The districts are as follows:

Central District - Counties of Santa Fe, Santa Ana, and San Miguel del Bado, with populations of 12,500, 10,500, and 18,800.
North District.- Counties of Rio Arriba and Taos, with populations of 15,000 and 14,200.
Southeast District - Counties of Valencia and Bernalillo. Populations 20,000 and 8,204.
This gives the total population of the territory as 99,204. The proclamation is dated June 17, 1844.
Governor Martinez was a special friend of education. He

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sent a number of the most promising young men in the territory to Durango and the city of Mexico to receive military educations; and established additional government schools in Santa Fe.

Mariano Martinez was the only governor except Perez sent direct from Mexico to rule this remote northern department. He was a distinguished military man, of tine appearance and many progressive ideas. It was he who planted the first trees in the plaza of Santa Fe, which had before been a sandy waste. The large cottonwoods, still standing, were placed there by his orders. He also made a park in front of the Rosario Chapel, and an avenue of trees leading to it. For lack of care, all of those trees perished. Governor Martinez is best remembered on account of the killing of the Ute chief, Panasiyave, with a blow from his chair, in the reception room of the palace, when he was attacked by six chiefs who were dissatisfied with the presents given to them. This was on September 7, 1844, and the next day the governor issued a four-page statement of the case, giving all the particulars, in order that the people should understand the provocation that led to this unfortunate affair.

During the Mexican regime New Mexico was from time to time represented in the Mexican Congress. Among the most distinguished representatives were Antonio Jose Martinez, of Taos, Juan Felipe Ortiz, of Santa Fe, and Diego Archuleta, of Rio Arriba.

This completes the summary of the leading events prior to the American occupation in 1846, but, before proceeding to that, we will devote a chapter to a list of the Spanish and Mexican governors, so far as they can be ascertained. The burning of the records in the plaza of Santa Fe in 1680 makes it impossible to be entirely accurate as to those holding office before that day.