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CHAPTER VII
Friar Ruiz and Espcjo

Almost forty years passed after the unsuccessful expedition of Coronado, before any further attempts, of which we have certain knowledge, were made to penetrate into New Mexico. The adventurous spirits of that time had fresh fields enough in Central and South America to occupy all of their attention, without returning to any land which had already been the scene of failure.

The next expedition was not military in its character, nor did it have the gratification of ambition or cupidity for its object; but it was undertaken by missionaries, whose sole object was the spread of the gospel.

Agustin Ruiz or Rodriguez, a Franciscan friar, laboring at San Bartolome, in northeastern Mexico, heard, in the year 1581, accounts of great provinces along the Rio Grande to the north which the Spaniards had never visited, and among whose inhabitants true religion was unknown. So interested did he become in these unknown nations, that he determined at all hazards to penetrate their country and carry to them a knowledge of Christianity. After some delay, he received the necessary permission from both civil and ecclesiastical authorities, and then lost no time in arranging to start on his mission. Two of his brothers in the order of St. Francis, Francisco Lopez and Juan de Santa Maria, resolved to accompany him; and they were provided with an escort of nine soldiers under a captain named Chamuscado, to whom were also entrusted the secular and practical duties of inquiring as to any mines that might exist in the new country. Eight Indians and one half-breed accompanied the missionaries as servants.

After a long northerly march of about five hundred miles they

at length arrived among the Pueblo Indians of the Rio Grande Valley, and reached a town called Puara, or Puaray, then of much importance, but long since destroyed; and which was situated about eight miles north of the present site of Albuquerque. At this point the soldiers absolute refused to go further, on account of the danger encountered in a strange country, surrounded by Indians, and without means of retreat. The friars endeavored to persuade them to continue the journey, and the soldiers in turn tried to persuade the friars to retrace their steps to Mexico. Neither would yield, and so they separated: the soldiers of the crown returned to the ease and security of their garrison life, and the soldiers of the Corps went forward, braving danger and death, to carry the words of salvation to the heathen regions beyond.

The friars continued as far north as Galisteo, at that time an important pueblo; and then concluded to send one of their number back to Mexico in order to bring more brethren into the field, which they found was too extensive for their small number. Brother Juan de Santa Maria was selected for the journey. He proceeded directly south toward El Paso, but on his way, when near the pueblo of San Pablo, he was killed by the Indians, while quietly resting under a tree. The other two settled in Puara in order to learn the Indian language together, but were soon separated by the murder of Brother Lopez who was violently struck on the head, while engaged in prayer in a secluded spot.

Friar Ruiz was now alone, and while he keenly felt his isolation and realized his danger, he resolutely determined to remain at his post. But his death was certain and unavoidable, for the destruction of all the missionaries had been decreed by the Pueblo authorities, and but a few days elapsed before he likewise received a martyrs crown at the pueblo of Santiago.

Thus ended this peaceful expedition into New Mexico by the death of the three devoted men who undertook the work. But their labors were not in vain, for the permanent colonization of the country was the direct result of their action; and the proverb that "the blood of the martyrs is the seed of the Church was

illustrated by the baptism within fifty years of over 34,000 Indians, and the erection in New Mexico, in the same time, by brother Franciscans, of over forty churches.

ESPEJO's EXPEDITION

No sooner had the Franciscans in Mexico heard from the returning soldiers of the peril in which the three missionaries were left, than they made an urgent appeal that relief might be sent. This reached the ear and touched the heart of Don Antonio de Espejo, a wealthy Spaniard engaged in mining at Santa Barbara, who generously offered himself and his fortune to the work, if an expedition could be regularly authorized. This was soon accomplished by obtaining an official license of authorization from Governor Ontmeros of New Biscay, which also included the' right to enlist all the soldiers necessary for the success of the undertaking.

Don Antonio was a man of great energy of character and lost no time in making preparations for the expedition. He enjoyed the confidence of the community to such an extent that soldiers hastened to enlist under his banner, and in a short time all was in readiness. On the tenth day of November, 1582, this expedition commenced its march from San Bartolome, and moved directly north, through the present state of Chihuahua, toward New Mexico. On the way, after passing the Conchos River, the little army marched through two tribes, called Passaguates and Tobosos, before reaching the Rio Grande, but it was not until the valley of that river was entered that any high grade of native civilization was seen. Here the first province entered was called Humanos, which contained a number of large towns of superior construction, the houses being of stone, cemented with lime and mortar. This nation was so extensive that Espejo was twelve days in passing through their country; and it appeared to have been visited by Cabeza de Vaca in his journey across the continent, as the people mentioned having been taught certain things by three white men and a negro.

Two other provinces were successively passed through, in both

of which the people were well-dressed in chamois skins and cotton clothes, and had many ornaments made of feathers; and then the army had to traverse a long stretch of uninhabited country, and afterwards found themselves in beautiful groves of cotton woods, and to the north of this entered an important province situated in the vicinity of the present pueblo of Isleta, of which that pueblo is probably one of the ancient towns. The houses here were four stories high and well-constructed, and the people not only wore clothing of cotton and deer-skins, but also boots and shoes, of which the soles were made of the stoutest and thickest leather. The people were very industrious, raising large quantities of cotton in addition to the ordinary cereal; one chief making Espejo a present of no less than four thousand bolls of cotton. This province contained ten towns.

Proceeding up the valley, the Spaniards soon came near to Puara (called by Espejo Poala) and then for the first time learned of the death of the three friars. They were naturally much grieved to find that so far as saving their lives was concerned, the expedition was in vain. As much was heard, however, of the richness of the surrounding country, it was determined to make brief explorations in various directions before returning to Mexico. The first of these was made by Espejo himself with only two men, who traveled easterly for two days and found a province on the border of the great buffalo plains, containing eleven towns and forty thousand inhabitants, where the people had great herds of cattle, and the wealthier classes had considerable gold and silver in their houses.

This encouraged him to undertake a much more important expedition. He proceeded northerly up the Rio Grande to the province of the Queres Indians, where he found five villages, the population of which he estimated at 14,000. He then traveled westerly to a province called Cunames and which also contained five towns of which the pueblo of Zia was the most important. This town was at that time much larger than at present, and was built around eight market places or plazas, the houses being the best that the Spaniards had seen during their expedition, stuc-

coed and painted with many colors. The people were well advanced in civilization and among other manufactured articles showed curious and beautiful mantles, which attracted much attention from their visitors. Continuing westerly, Espejo next found a people whom he calls Amies and who are easily recognizable as being the Jemez Indians. They lived in seven towns quite similar to those previously seen and their number was computed to be thirty thousand.

Fifteen leagues farther on the little expedition arrived at the point which is the most easily distinguishable in all the early chronicles, on account of its situation on the summit of a high rock. This was the pueblo of Acoma, and its commanding position particularly impressed the Spaniards. Throughout the whole of this trip Espejo had been received with great hospitality, but in this respect the people of Acoma exceeded their neighbors, entertaining the Spaniards with their national games and dances and bringing presents of every kind they considered acceptable.

After remaining three days at Acoma, Espejo proceeded directly to Zuni, which he distinctly identifies as the place called Cibola by the preceding Spanish writers, following the same route taken by Coronado's expedition on its return to Mexico; and, on arriving at that important pueblo, was surprised to find three of the Mexican Indians who had remained there for the forty years since they were left by Coronado. These men, whose names Avere Andres of Culiaean, Gaspar of Mexico, and Antonio of Guadalajara, had almost entirely forgotten their native language during their long sojourn at Cibola, but their delight on seeing the Spaniards can be imagined. They were anxious to be of any service possible, and so informed Espejo of a rich country in which the precious metals abounded and which was situated far to the westward on a great lake. They said that Coronado had been anxious to visit it, but could not, on account of the lack of water.

This story was sufficiently alluring to induce Espejo to make the attempt, which he did with nine soldiers, leaving the remainder of his little company at Zuiii. After traveling twenty-eight leagues he came to a province which was undoubtedly the

modern Moqui, whose population, with his usual over-estimate, he placed at 50,000. He spent some days here, conciliating the natives, and then, having secured new guides who were acquainted with the country beyond, he proceeded on the quest for the land of gold and silver. In this he was not without success, as he gives an enthusiastic description of a mine containing a vein of silver of remarkable width from which he took rich specimens with his own hands. This was in a mountainous region which must have been a little north of the modern Prescott, as his journey did not extend as far as the Colorado River, although he heard much of it from the Indian guides who endeavored to excite his interest by telling him that it was eight leagues in width! They also agreed with the reports that he had heard in Zuiii as to the "great lake," which must have been more imaginative even than the width of the river.

But Espejo was now anxious to return, and so journeyed back to Zuiii where he found Father Beltran, and the soldiers left with him, in good health, and was rejoiced to be informed that they had so conducted themselves as to gain the friendship of all the natives. Nevertheless, they were impatient to see Mexico again, and so, after proceeding to his headquarters in the valley of the Rio Grande, he allowed them to return to their homes with one other soldier who desired to accompany them, leaving him with but eight companions in his further explorations.

He now turned his attention northward and followed the banks of the Rio Grande until he found a province on the east of the river containing about 25,000 people, well-dressed and living in houses many stories in height. This was in a mountainous country, which he called Hubates, where there were many evergreens, and probably included that part of New Mexico which contains the Tehua pueblos, extending from Tesuque and Nambe to Santa Clara and San Juan. It could not have been further north, because while here he heard of the towns of the Tanos, which he says were only one day's travel distant, and he proceeded to visit them, passing in the vicinity of Santa Fe and going as far as the pueblo of Pecos. The population of the Tanos province he places,

from information received, at 40,000, although he did not visit all of the towns. Contrary to his usual experience, he was not received with cordiality by these people, who, on the contrary, refused to allow him to enter their towns; and this seems to have led not only to discouragement but to a feeling of fear of what might occur if the Indians became really hostile.

From his extended explorations Espejo was well satisfied of the wealth of the country and especially of its mineral riches, but he concluded that a much larger and more powerful expedition than that which he commanded was necessary to insure success in colonization or in conquest. So he decided to return to Mexico and look to the future for an opportunity of utilizing the store of information as to this new country in the north, which he called New Mexico.

Instead of retracing his route in the Rio Grande Valley, he was induced by the advice of guides to follow the untried path down the Pecos River, and thus was the first European to explore the course of that stream. He calls it the "River of Cows" because they - the buffaloes - were so numerous that during the whole distance they were found everywhere. Starting in the beginning of July he followed it almost or quite to the point where it enters the Rio Grande, and then, crossing the latter, proceeded by way of the Conchos to his home in New Biscay, where he arrived on September 20, 1583; and where he wrote an interesting "relacion" of hi journey and the new country, of which lie considered himself the first discoverer, to the viceroy of New Spain, who transmitted it to the king and his Council of the Indies.

CHAPTER VIII
Attempt at Colonization, 1585-1598

The discoveries of Espejo attracted universal interest, and his narration was immediately published in Spain and Rome, and within five years had been translated into French by Luc de la Porte and published in Paris in 1588, and has since then appeared in many languages and editions. The immediate result of the news of these discoveries carried to Mexico first by Father Beltran and his companions and afterwards by Espejo himself was to arouse in several ambitious breasts a desire to conquer and colonize the regions thus made known. To do this legally required an authorization either from the king or from the viceroy of New Spain, and applicants in considerable numbers soon addressed themselves to those high dignitaries.

The most natural applicant for this opportunity for fame and conquest was Espejo himself, and he made his appeal directly to the king, forwarding a full account of the success which had attended his previous efforts with a proposed plan of operations for a new expedition. His plan was to provide for permanent colonization by organizing a party of 400 men, the greater part to be soldiers, a hundred of whom should be accompanied by their wives and families; and taking with them large droves of cattle, horses, and sheep. The religious side of the enterprise was not to be neglected, as a number of Franciscan friars were to form part of the expedition, for the benefit of both colonists and natives. He stated that he had already expended ten thousand ducats on his previous expedition but he was now prepared to spend ten times that amount in the new enterprise; and he offered ample security for the fulfillment of all the obligations assumed. For reasons which we cannot now understand, but

which had their origin probably in the unfriendliness of the viceroy, this proposition was not accepted.

About the same time, Don Francisco Diaz de Vargas, alguazil mayor of the city of Puebla de los Angeles, made a similar application, although his proposition was not so favorable, as it provided that he should first visit the northern region with a party of fifty or sixty men, and, if an examination should show that colonization was desirable, he would then proceed with that work to a final success. Another aspirant for the honors of leadership was Don Cristobal Martin of the city of Mexico, who offered to fit out an expedition of two or three hundred men and to expend fifty thousand dollars of his own money in the exploration and colonization of New Mexico. Neither of these applications was successful, and so time passed until 1589 when Juan Bautista de Lomas, who had been very successful in mining adventures in New Galicia, and had occupied various public offices in that province, applied for official permission to march into New Mexico. He was a friend of the viceroy and his application was recommended by that high official, but again a refusal was the answer which came from Spain.

CASTAXO DE SOSA

It is difficult to say how many years would have elapsed before any new expedition would have penetrated into New Mexico if every man ambitious to make the attempt had waited until he had the formal authorization of the king, but in the year 1590 Don Gaspar Castano de Sosa, who had held many offices in the colonies and was then lieutenant-governor of the province of Nueva Leon, concluded to act on the authority he already possessed, of colonizing the vicinity of the province in which he was holding office without further formality. The result was one of the most interesting expeditions of that time.

He started from the town of Almaden on July 27, 1590, with a party of no less than 170 persons, including some women and children, and an ample supply of provisions. Taking a new route from that which had been pursued by any of his prede-

cessors, he crossed the Rio Grande to the Pecos and then proceeded up the valley of the latter until the advance guard of his expedition arrived at the pueblo of Pecos itself a few days before Christmas. This party was kindly received in the first place, but, after passing the night in the pueblo, they were suddenly attacked and driven out of town after three of their number had been wounded. Immediate information of this event was sent to Castafio, who was encamped with the larger portion of his expedition at a point lower down on the Pecos, called Urraca. Without delay he marched against the town with all his available force, and, after some parleying, made an attack on New Year's Day, which resulted in the capture of the place; but the Indians, as had been their custom ever since their earliest conflicts with the Spaniards, entirely deserted the town on the second night and retired to the mountains, leaving the Spaniards in undisputed control of the vacant pueblo. We have another description of this interesting pueblo from the historian of this expedition, who tells us that it was composed of buildings four or five stories in height, built around five plazas and containing no less than sixteen estufas; and that the houses contained pottery of much beauty and different from any which they had seen in Mexico. Castano found here an immense accumulation of corn, stored away according to the Pueblo custom, not only for use during that winter, but for any emergency that might occur thereafter, and which the Spaniards estimated to amount to 30,000 fanegas. A portion of this was sent to the non-military part of the expedition, then encamped at Urraca, and Castano then started with his troops to explore the remainder of the country.

As nearly as we can ascertain, from the rather meagre descriptions in the report he afterwards wrote, he first marched northwesterly to the country north of Santa Fe and visited six pueblos which submitted without objection to his claim of obedience. He then reached the Rio Grande where he visited two towns, one of which was probably the pueblo of San Juan, and proceeded up the river until he came in sight of a very large pueblo where the houses were reported to be seven or nine stories high, and which

was no doubt the present pueblo of Taos; but he did not enter, as the inhabitants presented a formidable appearance and the weather had now become so cold that the whole party was anxious to return to a warmer section. So they returned down the valley of the Rio Grande, crossing to two pueblos situated on the west side of the river, and afterwards re-crossing to another on the east, which may have been San Ildefonso. Continuing down the valley, they found four towns belonging to the Queres nation, very near together, three of which were probably Cochiti, Santo Domingo, and San Felipe. To two other pueblos which they visited in the same vicinity they gave the names of San Marcos and San Cristobal, but these may not have been the same places known by those names in more recent times, but were probably nearer to the Rio Grande.

Having thus visited twenty of the Indian villages and explored the greater part of the upper Rio Grande Valley, Castafio concluded to establish a permanent colony to which all of his party, including the women and the animals which had been left at Urraca, should be brought. This he established at San Marcos and on the 18th of February, 1591, all of the outlying parties had arrived and arrangements were made for the erection of permanent buildings. Attention Avas then given to the mineral riches of the country, and exploring parties were sent out in various directions, which included the modern mining districts of the Cerrillos, the Ortiz, and the Tuerto Mountains, In the course of these journeyings, two other pueblos were visited, which were probably those of Galisteo and San Lazaro, or the San Marcos pueblo of later times.

As the country to the south had not yet been explored, another expedition was now sent down the river to. the province of the Tihuas, in which the three Franciscans had been killed in the time of Friar Ruiz, and here they visited no less than nine Indian towns besides seeing five others, part of which were on the east and part on the west side of the river. Several of these were deserted because the people were afraid that this new expedition of the Spaniards might have come to avenge the death of the priests.

Thus within less than a year Castario had visited almost all of the inhabited portion of New Mexico, and, without the loss of a single man, had obtained the control of no less than thirty-three pueblos; and we might well have dated the permanent colonization of New Mexico from this time and have hailed Castano as being the leader in its occupation, had not the jealousy of the authorities of Spain and Mexico brought to an untimely end this expedition which had achieved such remarkable success. For at this point Castano received news that there was another party of Spaniards which had invaded the country and was not far distant. He hailed this information with joy as he supposed that they were reinforcements, but on meeting the newcomers he was surprised to find that they consisted of fifty soldiers under Captain Juan Morlete who had been sent with orders to arrest him for having undertaken this expedition without proper authority. He made no resistance but allowed himself to be placed in irons and re-conducted with his whole party to Mexico, thus abandoning the labors which had so nearly resulted in complete success.

BONILLA AND HUMANA

One other unfortunate attempt at exploration deserves attention before we come to the actual colonization of the country. About 1595, a party was sent out by the governor of New Biscay to punish certain northern Indians who had been committing depredations, the expedition being commanded by a Portuguese named Francisco Leiva Bonilla. After he had accomplished his mission, the ambitious Bonilla concluded to use his little force in the conquest of New Mexico and, if possible, to reach the ever alluring Quivira. He marched through a part of New Mexico and then started easterly across the buffalo plains toward the object of his aspirations. Here a quarrel arose between himself and one of his lieutenants named Juan de Humana, which resulted in the death of the captain and in the assumption of the command by Humana. This man, whose ambition equaled that of his late commander, pressed on towards the east and succeeded in reaching a point on the great grassy prairie of southern Kansas

or northern Oklahoma, which was ever after referred to on account of its sad history as the "Matanza." The Indians of that region had been patiently waiting for an opportunity to bring about his destruction and at this point they concentrated their forces, set fire to the grass which surrounded his camp, and then, just before daylight, rushed upon the half-awakened Spaniards and destroyed the entire party with the exception of one mulatto girl and a man named Alonzo Sanchez. The news of this disastrous event spread with great rapidity among the wild tribes of the plains and to the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico, and the expedition is often referred to in subsequent history as that of ''the unfortunate "Humaiia," the original leader being apparently forgotten. A Mexican Indian, named Jose or Josepe, had deserted the party before the final catastrophe and went to New Mexico, where he was seen years afterwards by Onate and became of considerable service as an interpreter.

CHAPTER IX
The Conquest by Onate

After this long series of fruitless efforts, success was at last to be attained under the leadership of Don Juan de Onate. This cavalier was a wealthy citizen of Zacatecas, whose ambition was so strongly excited by the reports from the new El Dorado at the north, that he made application in 1595 to Viceroy Velasco for authorization to colonize the country, offering to take with him at least 200 soldiers and all the appliances for success, at his own expense. He was not only rich and popular but had special prestige on account of the brilliant reputation of his father, Don Cristobal de Onate, and his own marriage to Dona Isabel de Toboso, a granddaughter of Fernando Cortez and a daughter of Montezuma.

All this aided his application, and the permission, with accompanying grants of power, was given in due time, on condition that the conquest and colonization should be completed within five years.

Armed with this authority, Onate lost no time in organizing his expedition, the recruiting standard was set up in the grand plaza of the city of Mexico by Vicente Saldivar, a gallant nephew of Onate, and everything promised successful results, until the arrival of a new viceroy in the place of Velasco changed the aspect of affairs, and instead of official encouragement, every obstacle possible was placed in the way of the expedition.

Much delay was thus occasioned, and the final authorization from the king was not received till late in 1597, and meanwhile the army, which at one time numbered over 600 men, had become so reduced that barely 130 could be mustered for final inspection. To meet the requirements of his contract, and yet

avoid further delay, Onate arranged that eighty additional troops should be enlisted, to follow as soon as possible, and started on his march from San Bartolome on January 20, 1598.

The little army was accompanied by a large number of families for colonization, and all the provisions which seemed necessary for success; it included ten Franciscan friars for the spiritual welfare of the new kingdom. Among the officers were a number of tried merit and of high distinction, including the two nephews of Onate, Juan and Vicente de Saldivar, and Captain Gaspar Villagra, a gallant soldier and the poet-historian of the expedition, to whom posterity is indebted for the most extensive epic ever written on early American history. This poem, entitled Historia de la Nueva Mexico, contains thirty-three cantos, constituting no less than 182 pages of ordinary modern print, and gives a minute as well as graphic narrative of all the events of the march, the conquest, and the colonization, from first to last.
Proceeding slowly, on account of the colonists and their heavy wagons, the column crossed the Conchos, and marched through Chihuahua until, on April 20th, it reached the Rio Grande about twenty-five miles below El Paso. At this point they rested for some days and then continued up the valley until the 30th of April, when a halt was made in a beautiful grove on the west bank; and here, with elaborate ceremonies, Oilate raised the royal standard of Spain, and formally took possession of New Mexico and all the adjoining provinces, for God and the king, and for himself as governor. The festivities ended at night with the performance of an original comedy written for the occasion by Captain Farfan, which may be considered the introduction of the drama into the southwest.

Four days later, on May 4, 1598, the expedition crossed the Rio G-rande at the ford which has become famous as the Pass of the North (El Paso del Norte), and proceeded up the east side of the river. On the 25th, they were near Mesilla, and there Onate selected fifty or sixty of the most valiant and best mounted men, and with them pressed forward in advance of the main body of the colonists, who could move but slowly, in search of food, which

was already becoming scarce. Three days later he arrived at the first of the pueblo Indian towns, which were situated in the So-corro Valley and which were three in number. The first was near the present San Marcial; the second is called Qualicu in the narrative of Villagra, but always thereafter is written Seneeu, both in record and on map, and was christened San Antonio de Seneeu by the Spaniards, and is the San Antonio of today; and the third was called Teipana. In all of them they were hospitably received by the natives, and at Teipana they obtained such an amount of corn, most of which was sent back to the main body of the expedition, that on account of this timely succor the town was named Socorro.

Having received this needed relief, Onate remained at Socorro and another pueblo a short distance above for some weeks, while his two nephews went on an expedition to the Piros towns to the east, of which Abo, Quarra, and Tabira (for some unknown .reason now called "Gran Quivira") are the best known.
Resuming the march, the governor and his party reach Puara, which had been the headquarters of Friar Ruiz, on June 28th; and there the Franciscans found the portraits of the martyred Ruiz and Lopez, roughly drawn on a wall seventeen years before, and almost concealed by a coat of yeso whitewash. Onate went on to Guipui, renamed Santo Domingo, and there, on July 7th, he held a long conference with seven Pueblo chieftains, who claimed to represent no less than thirty-four pueblos, which resulted in the Indians kneeling and taking the oath of allegiance to the Spanish crown.

On the 9th, he reached San Ildefonso, called Bove by the natives; and on the 11th came to the beautiful valley at the junction of the Chama with the Rio Grande, where he found the pueblo of Caypa on the eastern bank of the river. The inhabitants of this place showed so much kindness and hospitality, that the Spaniards added to the ecclesiastical name of San Juan the words "de los Caballeros" (of the gentlemen), and the title San Juan de los Caballeros became the legal designation of the old pueblo of Caypa.

The beauty and fertility of the valley, in addition to this warm reception, struck the attention of the Spaniards, and they immediately determined to make this the official center of the new kingdom. The very next day, July 12, 1598, they commenced the building of the new capital on the west side of the Rio Grande between that river and the Chama, in a place called Yunque by the natives, and named the infant city, San Gabriel. Here and across the river at the old pueblo of San Juan, Onate made his headquarters for some time; and the ruins of the first capital of New Mexico may still be seen from the windows of the passing train, at the modern station of Chamita.

This date, July 12, 1598, may be considered as the birthday of European settlement in New Mexico; and its anniversary should be celebrated in the Southwest, as the date of the landing of the Pilgrim Fathers on Plymouth Rock, on December 21, 1620, is annually observed wherever the memory of the founders of New England is venerated.

With characteristic energy Onate utilized every day while awaiting the arrival of the slow caravan of his colonists at San Gabriel. Between the l5th and the 20th of July he visited Picuris and Taos; and then, turning southward, rode to San IIdefonso, to the pueblos in the vicinity of Santa Fe, to Galisteo, and thence to Pecos, where he arrived on the 25th of July. Returning by the way of Santo Domingo, he traveled through Zia and Jemez, visiting some hot sulphur springs on the route; and again found himself at San Gabriel August 10th.

The long line of colonists was now arriving, and the last were in the new city by the 18th; and then all hands were called on to aid in the building of the church - the first Christian temple in New Mexico. It did not need to be very large to meet present requirements, and the record shows that it was completed in two weeks; but, if its size were small, the ceremonies of its dedication were made as elaborate as possible in order to impress the minds and hearts of the natives. These ceremonies took place on September 8th, and at their conclusion there was a dramatic representation of a conflict between the Christians and the Moors, in

which the former by the timely aid of St. James were gloriously victorious, to the great satisfaction of all the audience, both white and red. To cement the friendship of the Indians and afford them entertainment, festivities were continued for an entire week; all kinds of sports, both of the Spaniards and of the Pueblos, being indulged in, amid much rejoicing.

Advantage was taken of this era of good feeling, and of the presence of large numbers of Indians from all directions, to hold a great meeting of the Spanish officials and ecclesiastics and the representatives of all of the pueblos that could be reached, under the grandiloquent title of "Universal Meeting of all the Earth'' (Junta universal de toda la tierra). On this occasion their obligations both to Cross and Crown were elaborately explained to the Indians, and they acknowledged the sovereignty of the Spanish king, and agreed to receive the Franciscans as their religious guides; though at the same time they tactfully suggested that the Spaniards certainly would not wish them to profess a belief which they did not yet comprehend. There were ten friars in attendance under Padre Alonzo Martinez, as comisario, and at this time he divided the whole inhabited territory of New Mexico into seven districts, each of which was assigned to one of the missionaries.
Having at tended to all these ceremonials, Onate resumed his series of rapid journeys, by which he was determined to visit every portion of the new kingdom with the least possible delay. Xo subsequent governor of New Mexico has ever equaled the first of the long official line, in the thoroughness and rapidity with which he became personally acquainted with every part of the vast territory over which he presided, and this is the more notable when we remember that the country was then without roads except foot paths.

While Vicente de Saldivar was sent with a party of fifty men to explore the great buffalo plains to the east, Onate himself started south to make a personal visit to the pueblos east of the Rio Grande in the Salinas country, at Abo, Tabira, etc., and not content with that, extended his journey into the land of the Ju-

manos, who were a fine-looking and an intelligent people although not belonging to the Pueblo family. From here he crossed the Rio Grande at Puara for a brief rest and to receive news of his colony and make arrangements for a further journey; and then started, on October 23d, on the longest of his expeditions, extending not only to Acoina and Zurii, but also far into Arizona to the land of the Moquis.

He was received everywhere with apparent cordiality, all of the pueblos accepting the Spanish sovereignty without objection; although it afterwards appeared that at Acoma a number of leaders had formed a conspiracy to kill the governor by luring him into an estufa where he would be defenseless; and that he only escaped by fortunately declining to visit the chamber selected for his destruction. The Indians of Acoma considered their citadel impregnable, and had become altogether the most proud and self-confident of any of the Pueblo people; and the war party among them was strongly opposed to even a peaceful and friendly submission to the Spanish authority. The leader of this party was Zutucapan, an able and eloquent chieftain, who was determined to destroy the invaders, and who soon inflamed the minds of the people and controlled their actions.

The wished-for opportunity soon arrived. Onate had left orders at San Gabriel, that as soon as Vicente Saldivar returned from his exploration, his brother Juan, who had been left in command, should march with such soldiers as could be spared to re-enforce the governor on his western tour. He accordingly started on November 18th, following the route taken by Onate from Puara, by the way of Acoma. Here the Indians received him cordially and invited his little troop to the summit of their high mesa, to receive provisions; but no sooner were they scattered in various houses than a sudden attack was made. The Spaniards fought with desperation for fully three hours but were too greatly over-matched by numbers; finally Zutucapan succeeded in killing Captain Saldivar himself with a terrific blow of his macana, and the surviving Spaniards, of whom there were only five, threw themselves down from the cliff as the only chance of escape. By

what seemed a miracle, four survived the tremendous fall. Three others had escaped before; and one had been left in charge of the horses when the party climbed up the steep mesa; so there were eight men left to tell the tale. They sent a swift messenger to inform Onate of the catastrophe, and he speedily returned to San Gabriel to take measures to punish the rebellious Pueblos.

It was plain that this had to be done without delay, no matter at what sacrifice, or their prestige would be lost, and the whole country would rise against them and either destroy or drive them out. Yet the enterprise was a most dangerous and difficult one, on account of the almost impregnable character of the mesa of Acoma, which was a gigantic natural fortress. The mesa is composed of two perpendicular cliffs, connected by a narrow ridge, and to each cliff there is but one steep, almost inaccessible entrance. A dozen resolute men, even if armed only with stones, could hold the main approach against the armies of the world, in the days before artillery changed the whole science of warfare.

The enterprise was entrusted to Vicente de Saldivar, brother of the captain who had fallen, and he was given command of a little army of only seventy men, but each one selected for his bravery and prowess. No more gallant forlorn hope ever marched into the jaws of death than this little band which set forth from San Gabriel to avenge the death of their brethren and to uphold the honor of the Spanish arms.

On the 21st of January, 1599, they came in sight of the great cliff, and could see upon the summit the crowd of warriors prepared to defend their families and their homes. Its perpendicular walls seemed an insurmountable barrier that made capture impossible. And so they were, against direct attack. But what might not succumb to force might be gained by cunning, and Don Vicente laid his plans accordingly.

In the darkness of the night, with a dozen chosen comrades, he concealed himself in the clefts of the smaller cliff. Then at break of day, all the remainder of the little army, which seemed the whole, made a fierce attack on the main entrance to the larger mesa, desperately attempting to gain the summit, up the narrow passage, which is the only way of ascent. The Indians were pre-

pared and easily withstood the attack, and soon hurled back the advance of the Spaniards.

But meanwhile, all unseen, Saldivars little band had gained the top of the other cliff and stood upon a level with their foes. Then came a fierce struggle at the narrow pass. More Spaniards followed Saldivar's dozen up the steep side of the small cliff; while others still endeavored to press their way up the larger one on which the village stands, and where the whole population of Acoma was assembled. Everywhere it was a hand-to-hand struggle; and to fall on either cliff or on the narrow ridge between, meant swift destruction on the jagged sides of the rocky mesas or in the abyss below. Night came but brought no rest; and with the dawn of another day, came only a renewal of the fierce conflict.

The Indians outnumbered the Spaniards more than ten to one, but the latter were clad in mail and carried the deadly firearms which could deal death beyond the reach of the macana. All that day the fight went on - and still the struggle was not decided. It was a battle full of deeds of valor and of daring, of giant trials of strength, like those immortalized in the Iliad; and it had for its Homer the gallant Villagra, who was in the midst of the fray.

The third day came, and the Spaniards pressed the Indians back into their long line of terraced houses, and then these became a mass of flame and the inmates had to choose between two frightful kinds of death. In desperation they killed themselves or each other, or rushed out and threw themselves down the cliffs to sure destruction. For hours every Indian that could be seen was slaughtered. In all history there is no more desperate battle, nor ever one on such a dizzy height. Of over 3,000 Indians only six hundred were spared, and they were compelled to leave their home on the great rock and settle on the plain.

The moral effect of this great victory was immense. It completed the conquest. There was no longer any danger of opposition. By the Pueblo Indians, Acoma had long been considered impregnable. Now that it had fallen, there was no hope for success in any resistance elsewhere. Every pueblo acknowledged the Spanish authority. The Conquest of New Mexico was complete.